Tip 1: How to determine the age of a book
Tip 1: How to determine the age of a book
Today the book is very commonand an affordable thing, but not so long ago, by historical standards, books were very rare and expensive. Old books today are a great value, but often the age of the book and its value (at least material) can be difficult to determine due to the absence in the book itself of any data regarding the time of its creation. There are a number of indirect ways to determine the age of bibliographic value.
Instructions
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PrintThe first printed books appeared in Europe inmid-fifteenth century thanks to the efforts of the talented German inventor Johann Guttenberg. If the book is printed (not handwritten), it can not be younger than 1456. However, if the book is hand-written, this does not mean that it appeared until the middle of the XV century. The first printed books were very rare and expensive, therefore manual rewriting of books was practiced for many centuries after the invention of printing.
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LanguageIn the past, even existing languagesstylistics differed significantly from today's counterparts. Set the approximate age of the book can be in the style of writing, determining which era corresponded to the norms of the language, according to which it was written.
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FontMnoe can tell a font that has a bibliographic rarity printed. By comparison with other books, you can identify for which era this font was typical.
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Paper structure At different times for printingThey used different paper, setting the type of which, you can determine the age of the book. For example, books of the 15th-16th centuries are characterized by a fibrous structure, since paper was made for them manually.
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ContentSet the approximate age of the bookyou can by its content. For example, often in medieval treaties, the foreword mentions the names of the current rulers (or the author) or other powerful people. You can also set the time of writing based on the events described in the book. However, there is the following nuance: the book may turn out to be a later reprint, and then mention of any names and events will not help to establish its age.
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Some books were printed on colored paper, for example, Jewish books on dark blue. Based on this, the specialist will be able to determine the time when the book was printed.
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TypographyIf the book does not specify the year of printing, thisdoes not mean that the printing house can not be specified. Usually the name of the printing house is indicated on the last sheet. If it is, then you can set the approximate age of the book by knowing the dates of the printing house's existence.
Tip 2: The First Printed Book
Books are a habitual part of life since childhood. Now they are increasingly replaced by electronic "readers" and tablet computers, more convenient for use, for example, in transport, but the charm of turning over paper pages is not comparable to anything. No matter how digital technologies are perfected, a paper book will always remain in the life of a person.
The first printed book in the history of mankind
It is believed that the very first book was printedin China, in the 868th year. Strictly speaking, it was not even a book in the usual sense, but was a scroll of gray paper wrapped around a wooden base. The book is known as the "Diamond Sutra" (the fuller name is "The Sutra of Perfect Wisdom, Dissecting the Darkness of Ignorance as a Lightning Strike"). This treatise on the virtues needed to enter the path of righteous living is a kind of Buddhist Bible. Which is not surprising, because, as a rule, the first printed editions turned out to be religious texts, because they were the most valuable for people of those times. Even the name of the printer who made this copy of the sacred sutra is known: Wang Ji. The "Diamond Sutra" was printed. It was a woodcut method, that is, an imprint from a wooden board on which letters were cut with a knife. The kit printing technology was at that time for the Chinese too laborious, because in their language - thousands of hieroglyphs.History of printing in Europe
The first European printed books alsoprinted by the method of woodcuts and called incunabulae. The most famous of them was the so-called "Bible of the Poor", printed around 1423. Inkunabul to our time has reached little. They were in many respects similar to hand-written books, since x-ray printers tried to imitate the handwritten font as accurately as possible. Mistrustful to all new citizens did not immediately appreciate the dignity of printed books and continued to appreciate texts that were manually rewritten in monasteries. The real flowering of printing came in Europe after Johann Guttenberg's invention of the printing press technology. In order to print the book, it was not necessary to cut out the text of her pages on wooden boards - printed galleys were typed, consisting of individual letters-letters. The first printed book of Gutenberg was the 42-line Bible, published in 1455-th year.Russian printed books
The first Russian printed books appeared in the 50'sYears of the XVI century and also were created by the method of woodcuts. The names of these books and the names of publishers have not survived to this day. The first famous Russian printer was Ivan Fedorov. He invested a tremendous amount of time, effort and skill in the two-color edition of the famous book "Acts of the Holy Apostles", also known under the short title "The Apostle", which was published March 1, 1564. The book contains highly artistic illustrations cut and engraved by Fedorov himself, screensavers, beautifully executed fonts. The preparation of the Apostle took a year to print. The edition circulation was about 1200 books. All of them Fedorov typed his own hand. Later he also published the first Russian textbook under the whole well-known name "Azbuka", as well as several religious treatises and prayer books.Tip 3: Which books were printed in Russia first
Another Tsar Ivan the Terrible drew attention to the fact thatHandwritten books are in trouble and abound with errors. Indeed, prior to the introduction of typography, copyists often made mistakes, introduced inadmissible changes in the books that distorted the meaning of the records. The publication of printed books helped to correct the situation and make order in the book business.
From the history of printing
The invention of printing became one of theSignificant phenomena in the field of culture. In Russia, the first printing house appeared around 1553. Unfortunately, the names of all the masters of the printing business have not reached the present day. The first printer in Russia is deacon Ivan Fedorov. There is information that he planned to publish the first book in 1553. The design of the printing house was not an easy task. Only ten years later in Moscow, through the efforts of Ivan Fedorov and his associates, a "Russian press" was created. Its building was built next to the Nikolsky Monastery, where the Printing House later was located. At the disposal of the master printers there was a beautiful font and numerous graphic elements, which were to become introductions to future books.The first printed books in Russia
The first book of Russian masters-printers,"Apostle", was published in March 1564. It was a very high-quality publication for those times, printed in clear script and richly decorated in terms of graphics. Work on the publication of the Apostle was conducted almost a year. The book was liturgical, it contained separate parts of the New Testament. The edition had a special marking and was divided into fragments intended for reading at divine services. The first book quickly turned into a bibliographic rarity. About a year later the "Russian press" twice published another book, called "The Chapel". The printer Ivan Fyodorov not only mastered the printing work well, but also proved to be a competent editor. He skillfully ruled the translations of the Holy Scriptures available to him. Fyodorov's books were close in their style to the language of that time. Some time later, Ivan Fedorov and his associate Pyotr Mstislavets left Moscow for not quite understandable reasons, but did not stop publishing. Probably, the masters were persecuted for this heretical occupation. After settling in Lviv, the printers once again released the book "The Apostle", and then the whole Bible. Approximately in 1574 appeared the first edition of the printed bibliography, equipped with grammatical rules. After the departure of printers from Moscow, printing stopped there for more than two decades. It is known about the attempt of the craftsmen Nicephorus Tarasiev and Andronicus Timofeev to publish the "Psalter", where the font and some other elements were almost completely copied from the "Apostle" Ivan Fedorov. But the real publication of printed books in Moscow was resumed only towards the end of the 16th century.Tip 4: How to know the age of a book
In the post-Soviet period, popularity increasedcollect antiques. In this case, one of the determining factors of the value of the object is its age. In an object such as a book, age by specifying the year of publication can be determined accurately and quickly. But what if the year is not specified? For this, there are a number of other methods for determining the age of publication.
Instructions
1
Collect all available information about the book. If it was kept in your home, ask older relatives about how long the book in the family, when and how it was purchased. This will help you at least approximately determine its age.
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Pay attention to the spelling. In Russian history, several reforms were carried out, which greatly altered the spelling. Thanks to this, you can at least approximately date the text that you see in front of you. If the text contains such letters as "omega", "Izhitsa" or "yus", then the book was created before 1710, that is, before Peter I approved a new civil font. An exception can be texts created by the Old Believers - in their midst the old spelling lasted longer. The presence of the letter "i" indicates that the text was published after 1735, when this letter appeared. And the letter "e" can be found in books only from the end of the XVIII century. Since 1918, the letters "yat" and "fita" have not been used in the texts, a solid sign at the end of words has disappeared. Certain changes in spelling can be observed in newer publications. For example, until 1956 a number of words were written differently than they are now-devil, whisper, barber, and a number of others.
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For books created before the 20th century, usedating on filigree. Filigree is a special type of watermark, which was applied to paper as a sign of the manufacturer. Each year, the shape and appearance of these signs changed. On them you can determine not only the time, but also the place of production of paper. The difficulty of this method is that. That he can give only the lower border of dating, for example, that the book was created not earlier than the fifties of the XVII century. But it could be written and published much later, simply and using old sheets of paper. Currently, many catalogs of both Russian and foreign filigree with appropriate dates have been published. These publications are available in the scientific library.
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For manuscripts, dating by type is appropriatewriting letters. In the old Russian language, you can distinguish two basic fonts: - the charter, featuring a clear geometric writing of letters. In the classical form it was used in the XI-XIV centuries, - half-shell, with more rounded letters and superscripts. Appeared in the XIV century, after 1710 almost came to naught.
Tip 5: How to determine the psychological age
All people evaluate their lives differently: someone thinks that everything is already behind in 20 years, and someone thinks that everything is just beginning at 60. What is the reason for such a spread in expectations? The main role here is played by the psychological age, i.e. then, for how many years a person feels himself psychologically.
You will need
- a sheet of paper, a pen.
Instructions
1
Determine if your opinion differs greatlyabout life plans with the views of your peers. Find out if they think that life is almost lived or vice versa, they prefer to think that it has not started yet. Try to analyze, whose opinion is more in line with reality, and whose more resembles your own.
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Take a sheet of paper and a pencil. Draw a horizontal line. It will symbolize your entire life, from birth to the moment of death. Draw a line as long as you want. Label the age at the beginning and end of the segment.
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Mark the point at which you are inthis moment. Here you should keep in mind the age specified in the passport. For example, you plan to live up to 100 years, and now you are 25. Therefore, the point of this day should separate the first quarter of the line. Put a date under the dot.
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Recall all the significant events thathave occurred to you in your entire life. They may not be very important, but they strongly influenced your worldview. It can be a wedding or a book you read. Mark the events with points and distribute them by importance. In drawing up such a scheme, it should be borne in mind that events can be both positive and negative.
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Now do the same with the rightside of the line, i. indicate events on it that have not yet occurred, but are part of your plans. Mark everything that comes to your mind. It can be the birth of a child, the protection of a doctor's, and the opening of one's own business. In a word, everything you are aiming at or dreaming about.
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Now compare the number of important points beforepoints of the present day and after it. Overweight in one direction or another will mean your psychological age. If the events of the past are more significant than the events of the future, then your psychological age is greater than indicated in the passport. And vice versa, the bigger plans you put on the future, the younger you are psychologically.
Tip 6: How to identify a person with a second identity?
Split personality is a rare occurrence, but many people suspect its presence in itself or friends.
Split personality is a state in whicha person has two or more completely independent personalities. When one of the persons seizes control, the other is silent. She does not realize the actions performed by the body, and does not remember them.
People who have several personalities, obviously, behave absolutely differently in different situations, since individuals, as a rule, have completely different character, gender and age.
Physicians believe that the main cause of the disorderis violence and stressful situations in childhood and a predisposition to dissociation. Dissociation is a kind of fallout from reality that can be observed when reading books or watching movies, when an enthusiastic person does not pay attention to the world around him and this period of time falls out of his memory.
Often, individuals are aggressiveto the person in whom they live, and to the surrounding people. Therefore, the split personality is very dangerous, often individuals mutilate the body and commit crimes, which people, having regained consciousness, do not remember.
Treatment is done with the help of psychologists who,studying the patient and his personality, find an approach to each of them, persuading them to merge together. Of course, this is not possible often, so the split personality is an almost incurable disease.
Tip 7: How to determine the child's ability
Each child has makings, but not allchildren manage to develop them in ability and giftedness. Parents should help in this, having noticed on time, what kind of activity their child has inclinations and cravings.
Instructions
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Usually the baby begins to show the ability toto any occupation at the age of 4-5 years. True, it also happens that an extraordinary talent can be seen already with a three-year-old child. Carefully take a closer look at your baby: watching him will help you determine which classes he likes best. The main thing - after understanding what the child has a tendency for, note that coercion only increases rejection. A favorite occupation should bring pleasure and joy.
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Artistic abilities of the child, as a rule,show up already in 2-3 years. You will notice that your favorite activities of the kid are drawing, appliqué, modeling. Watch him: the child notices more flowers than his peers, distinguishes their shades, draws attention to details, objects that are in the background.
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Does your baby like to sing? Take a good look at it, so as not to miss the musical talent of the child. In addition to being able to reproduce music heard just once, the baby is also able to move rhythmically. He is not a fake when he sings, he is interested in musical instruments. Some such children gladly imitate famous performers.
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Your baby from an early age with pleasurehe listens and flips through the books, he learned to read early, quickly remembers and loves to recite poetry. Watch him: maybe you have a future actor or writer growing up. Such children have a rich imagination and a large vocabulary. The child likes to write stories, he is good at expressing his emotions and imitating the heroes of fairy tales or cartoons.
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Note that children giftedintellectually, have great knowledge in different fields or in any one. They like to read encyclopedias, they are capable of profound analysis, are able to critically treat facts. As a rule, such children quickly learn new material and easily learn. Perhaps the future scientist you can recognize in your child, who is interested in numbers; easy to concentrate; likes to count everything; play boardgames; dismantle the parts of the toy to see their device. He likes to collect puzzles, solve puzzles and puzzles.
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Sports talent distinguishes the child among hispeers with agility, good coordination of movements and physical form. If your baby likes to run, compete with friends, early mastered the bike, it just boils of energy, keep in mind that this does not mean that he is not given intellect. It's just the most interesting for him to do sports, to receive satisfaction from physical fatigue.
